In a nutshell. The Republic of Italy is approx­imately the size of Arizona and if her population continues to grow at its present rate, will soon have the largest number of citizens of any European country save only the Soviet Union.

To give a quick rundown on Italy is a task beyond the meager abilities of this writer for there is probably no land in the world about which so very much can be said. To describe her geograph­ically alone would take up pages since Italy runs from the Alps, the grandest mountains in Europe, down to the tropical-like Italian Riviera with its palm trees and its long golden beaches. It's northern industrial cities such as Milan are as modern as Detroit, while the sleepy villages in Southern Italy and Sicily are some of the most backward and poverty stricken in Europe. Such islands as Capri, right off Naples, have been noted since Roman times as resort spots and it was here that the notorious Emperor Tiberius built his retirement palace. Vesuvius, also near Naples, is probably the most famous volcano in the world—what school child doesn't remember Pompei and how it was destroyed over night by the belching mountain? Sicily, studded with Greek and Roman ruins, is considered by many travelers to have the most impressive coast­line in Europe.

And her cities! If you were to name the dozen most beautiful cities in the world, Italy alone would boast at least two of them and possibly three. Venice, of course, with her canals, her medieval atmosphere, her different qualities; Rome, probably the most im­pressive city anywhere, with the weight of her centuries heavy on her shoulders; Florence, that medieval center which contains more of the great art of all time than any other city on earth.

Nor are these three alone. Naples has one of the most beautiful natural harbors in the world; Portofino, has one of the most beautiful natural settings anywhere; Positano, on the Amalfi Drive, south of Naples, is the loveliest art colony I have seen; San Remo on the Italian Riviera rivals anything on the French, including casinos, race tracks, luxury hotels and outstanding restaurants. There are many, many others.

Somehow, of all the countries in the world Italy packs more feeling of art and of history into her atmosphere. Not an hour goes by but that you are conscious of her heritage. Here is a Roman temple once built to Jupiter; there is a medieval castle rich with the wealth of the Medeci; over here is a cathedral ornamented by Michelangelo; the road over which we drive in spots still shows the ruts once caused by chariot wheels. Here Ceasar passed on his way to Rome; there Napoleon was exiled on the tiny island of Elba; and from this house Marco Polo, the first tourist, took off on his way to far Cathay; and from this port the Crusaders left to wrest the Holy Land from Saladin.

There is no more attractive nation in the world than Italy. Were it not for one thing, I would recommend it to the skies for the American bent on retiring. The one thing is this: next to France, Italy is probably the most expensive country in Europe. And with her two million unemployed, it is one of the most difficult nations abroad in which to find work. It can be done, of course, and many Americans are living in Italy either retired on pensions or incomes or working at this deal or that. It can be done but there are easier places in which to retire than Italy.

ENTRY REQUIREMENTS. There is no complication involved in getting into Italy other than having your American passport. As a tourist you are allowed to remain ninety days. After this you apply, through your hotel or through the nearest State Tourist Office, for a Permesso di Soggiorno which gives you another ninety days. If your visit is to be prolonged still more or if you are taking up permanent residence, then it is necessary to get permission from the Ministry of the Interior. You must have a reason to submit. Such reasons as "to study art" or some such. I have never heard of such permission ever being refused, it's merely a formality.

TRANSPORTATION. To put it flatly, Italy makes herself easily available to the traveler. For instance, ten different airlines ply between New York and Rome. These range from our own Pan American and TWA to the Israel Airlines which stop off at Rome on the way to Palestine. Rates are the same no matter what line you choose. First class, one way, in season is $533.30 at this writing. Tourist class is $360.20 one way, in season. And the new thrift class brings it down even further.

There are a multitude of steamship lines running between New York and Genoa or Naples. Chief among them are, Italian Lines, American Export Lines, Home Lines, Lauro Lines and the Greek Line. Freighter lines carrying passengers include the Concordia Line, Costa Line, Barber Mediterranean Line and the Hellenic Lines. The minimum one way passenger rates for both freighters and liners is $175. On an average you get more for your dollar on a freighter than you do on a liner. They're less crowded, you are more apt to have a cabin of your own rather than sharing it with half a dozen and up strangers, and the food is better. Freighter trips are apt to be more lengthy too. I spent a whole month once crossing the Atlantic between Jacksonville, Florida and Amsterdam, Hol­land. Private cabin, private bath, private steward, and I ate at the captain's table. Total cost, $215. I wouldn't have had the same degree of comfort for double the amount on one of the big liners.

Probably the cheapest manner in which to get to Italy would be to take a student ship from New York to Holland or France and from there take the train or bus to Genoa. You wouldn't save much though. Your train fare and meals along the way would eat up most of your reduced Atlantic passage fare.

In Italy itself you'll find transportation as good as anywhere in Europe. The Italian Airlines have a fine reputation. The Italian railroads are among the fastest and most efficient in Europe, particularly if you go first class on one of the Rapido trains. Second class, on the slower trains, is almost invariably packed to the gills. You're best off booking reserved tickets ahead of time.

Bus services in Italy are unrivaled anywhere in the world. The CIAT buses are absolutely luxurious what with hostess, snack bars, lavatories, glass roofs, air conditioning—everything except a floorshow. The country is covered in extraordinary detail with bus lines, particularly with the foreigner in mind since tourism is one of Italy's most basic industries and has been for centuries.

Main highways total over 13,000 miles and Italy is easily seen by car, motorcycle, scooter or even bicycle. Every facility is avail­able for the traveler and service stations are everywhere. There are even special pumps for scooters which supply gas properly mixed with oil. In fact, since gas is relatively expensive in Italy, as it is everywhere in Europe, there are considerably more scooters and motorbikes on the roads than there are cars.

If you plan to enter Italy by car, or any other private vehicle, send for the pamphlet Visit Italy In Motor Car which is distributed free by the tourist offices. This gives you a complete rundown including a road map of the country.

THE ITALIANS. Sowehow or other many of we Americans have picked up the idea that all Italians are short, dark of complexion, highly excitable, of criminal tendency and make second rate citizens. Why this should be, I don't know, unless it is because a large percentage of Italians who have migrated to the United States came from poverty stricken Sicily or from the equally poverty stricken areas about Naples.

Actually, Italy is almost as great a melting pot of nations as is our own country. There are a good many tall blondes in the north in those sections over which the Germanic tribes rolled to over­throw the Roman power. There are a great many red heads in the more central Rome area, and, in the deep south we find the shorter statured, dark complected Italians.

As far as criminal tendencies are concerned, it is true that Naples to a large extent deserves the reputation she has gained. There is probably more crime there than in the average European city. On the other hand, in the northern cities you are less apt to have your pockets picked, to be attacked on the streets, or to be cheated in your business dealings than you are in an average American city. I'd much sooner walk the streets of Venice, at two o'clock in the morning, than I would those of Brooklyn or Chicago.

The fabulous heights reached by the Italian people in art, science, political science and philosophy could not have been achieved by other than a bright, cultured, aggressive folk and not by a bunch of bettlebrowed fruit peddlers such as are so often portrayed in our cartoons of typical Italians.

If you do choose Italy in which to sojourn, whether permanently or temporarily, you'll probably like the Italians, their food and drink, their outlook—their way of life. I certainly do.

MONEY. Not too many years ago Italian money wag one of the weakest in Europe but today it is quite hard and you gain little by changing your dollars at the exchange houses. In fact, at this writing the official rate is 624.84 lire to the dollar while on the free market in New York or Switzerland you can get 630 to the dollar. Not enough difference to make any difference.

Italian money, like French, can offer its hazards. The larger the bill the larger the size until when you get to the 10,000 lire notes ($16) you've got a piece of money that seems half the size of a baby blanket, and you have to fold it several times to get it into your wallet.

WORK PERMISSION. You are not allowed to work in Italy if by so doing you displace an Italian. If the job is something an Italian can't handle, then a work permit will be issued. Italian rates of pay, however, are miserably low by American standards and there are few jobs at which you could make enough to get by.

You are allowed to work for American firms, or individuals, without such a permit. And you are allowed to operate any little deal you may dream up which will bring foreign currency, such as dollars, into Italy.

Jobs are scarce, prices are high, but we'll have various case histories at the end of this chapter on people who have beaten this tough Italian rap.

§

PRICES. We've mentioned elsewhere in this book that you can live cheaply just about anywhere // you know the ropes, even in Paris or New York. This was proven to me in an amusing way in Rome. I first met Nestor Almenrodes in Istanbul. He was seeing Greece and Turkey on a shoestring and I've never seen anyone, anywhere, who could live on a thinner shoestring than Nestor. One day in passing I mentioned the fact that there were some cities that were just too expensive for me to visit and I named Rome among them. Nestor was using Rome as his base of operations at that time and he demurred. You could live very cheaply in Rome, he let me know, if you knew your way around. He gave me his address and told me to look him up if I ever got to the Eternal City.

Sure enough six months later I was on my way through Italy and took him at his word. Nestor was living in a private home, on the Piazza Amerigo Capponi which isn't too far from the Vatican. It's a section of town which specializes in renting rooms in private homes and apartments to students. Nestor had a pleasant, large room with "kitchen rights" which meant he was free to use the kitchen to make his own breakfast and to whip up a meal once in awhile. Aside from breakfast, however, he seldom did this since he had worked out restaurant deals even cheaper.

He was paying 7,000 lire a month for his room, which amounts to a little over $10 and was considered a fairly good arrangement. A few of his friends had less desirable rooms for as little as 6,000 while others paid as much as 10,000 lire. Since I was to be in town only for ten days or so, I put up with a temporary place for about a dollar a night in a private home, my room right next to the bath.

This was all very well, thus far, seeing that a comparable room in a hotel would have cost me at least $5 and probably more when all the endless service charges and taxes were added to the bill. But food, I pointed out to Nestor, was the expensive thing in Italy.

So the first evening he took me to eat at the Vatican. I had never heard before of the two O.N.A.R.M.O. restaurants which have been established for students and pilgrims on a tight budget. The one we went to was on the Via del Mascherino, one block from St. Peter's. You could eat well, here, with wine, for fifty cents. You could eat adequately for about .35.

Just as cheap, possibly more so, are the E.C.A. restaurants scattered around town, about thirty of them in all. They are sub­sidized by the government for low paid workers and are something like the tremendous stand-up cafeterias you see in our larger cities. There are no chairs. I remember a meal of soup, pasta, artichokes, steak and wine for .39. It would be hard to beat.

During my days in Rome I spent an average of about three dollars a day, including entertainment. Nestor even knew the cheaper trattorias and osterias where wine comes to only a few cents a glass and a bottle of beer about .10. He proved his point, you can live in any city cheaply if you know the ropes. His own budget, including tuition fees at the school he was attending, was $55 a month.

Largely, however, Rome is an expensive town, only about 10% cheaper than New York, it is estimated. You'll be lucky to find a small unfurnished apartment for less than seventy dollars or a furnished one for ninety. And for such prices you will not be getting a luxurious flat.

Eating in Italy is some of the best in the world. It might be true that France has the best restaurants anywhere but you only find the really top French food in luxury establishments far out of the price range of most of us. In Italy, you can find excellent meals in even the medium priced places. I'm of the opinion that per dollar spent you eat better in Italy than you do in France.

For the person with retirement in mind, the Italian Riviera (up near the French border), Sicily, and Sardinia are considerably more in line with the unstuffed pocketbook. On the Riviera you can stay in a pension for as little as $4 to $5 a day. In fact, sometimes you can beat this a little. On the picturesque island of Sardinia you'll find full pension at as little as $2.50 a day and even lower. That includes room, all meals, services and taxes.

A villa on the Italian Riviera or in Sicily will run you a minimum of about $40 for a place in which Americans would wish to live. You can pay considerably more, without half trying, but if you shop around, $40 or $50 should do it.

Servants will run about $20 a month, give or take a little accord­ing to where you're living. Food is the tough item on the budget. Mutton is your cheapest meat at about .60 a pound, beef is about .90, butter .85, eggs about 804 a dozen on an average, cheese is cheap at .10 a pound or so, spaghetti a little less than this. Wine is about 154 a liter for the ordinary varieties, coffee sky high at about $1.50 a pound. Fish is usually a good buy at about .30 a pound and chicken is usually about .90 a pound. Fruit is fairly cheap and bread goes at about 204 a loaf. American cigarettes are prohibitive in price, .55 a pack and up, but there are cheaper Italian varieties. Gasoline is beginning to push the $1 a gallon point. Clothes are good and fairly cheap. A man's suit should go about $40 and a woman's $30, of excellent wool in both cases. Shoes for men are about $10 and Italian shoes are some of the best in Europe.

PARTICULARL Y RECOMMENDED LOCALITIES. If you go to Italy with the intention of finding some manner of making your own way, I would suggest Rome or possibly Venice. Both are large tourist centers, both have a good many Americans already living there. There are almost always opportunities when there are numbers of your fellows about. Rome in particular has at any one time several thousand Americans within her bounds, working, studying, conducting a business or just plain retired. She is an alive city, an inspiring city; it would be difficult to live in Rome and ever feel bored, ever feel as though life was an inescapable rut.

But for retiring on pension or income, or for a slower way of life, for me it would either be the Italian Riviera or Sicily. One great advantage in the former is its comparative accessibility to the balance of Europe. You might settle in a town such as Levanto and periodically make trips to nearby Switzerland, France, Monaco or even Yugoslavia, all of them less than a day's trip by car, bus or train.

Generally on the Italian Riviera the more expensive tourist centers are near the French border. There are as many picturesque and beautiful towns along here as there are on the French side. But if you are looking for economy, your best bet is to the East of Genoa, which for some reason has not as yet drawn the tourist hordes that other sections of the country are deluged with. In particular is the section around La Spezia. Of all the little towns in this stretch of the Italian Riviera, Monterosso and Levanto are my two favorites. But you have a wide variety and you might decide upon a little fishing village or some tiny town built up against the hillsides overlooking the blueness of the Mediterranean.

Sicily is, of course, the island just off the toe of the boot of Italy. Less than a mile of water separates her from the mainland. Messina is the town at which your ferry stops. When we think of Italy we think of Rome but actually Sicily was a Greek island, long before Rome became prominent. In fact, Syracuse was once the largest of all Greek cities, even surpassing Athens. Today, Greek theatres and temples are everywhere to be seen in their ruin.

Sicily has been "discovered" by the foreigner looking for bargain paradise retirement centers but she is a large island of 9,925 square miles, about the size of Maryland, and has a population of four and a half millions. There are literally hundreds of towns, cities and villages beautifully situated that are as yet untouched by the outsider.

My own favorite Sicilian town is Taormina and I once spent an extremely happy time there. The famous Mt. Etna, snow topped, is in the distance and Taormina herself is built atop a high cliff which rises almost perpendicularly out of the sea. There is a famous Greek-Roman theatre, and other historic ruins since the city has been in existence for some three thousand years. There are also medieval ruins and in fact the whole city with its picturesque wind­ing streets and its walls and gates, gives you a middle-ages effect.

Taormina has been well "discovered" and particularly in season becomes quite crowded with tourists. However, a permanent resi­dent can beat tourist prices by having his own house or apartment and shopping in the markets as the Italians do, rather than eating in restaurants. It should be possible to get a fairly adequate place for about $50 a month, less if taken on a year round basis.

I know of only two places in Europe that boast a better climate, the Greek Dodecanese Islands and the Costa del Sol of southern Spain.

§

CASE HISTORY No. 1. Would you like to get into the movie industry the easy way? It's not difficult at all and a free wheeling friend of mine makes his living in Rome at it and knows nothing about acting and has no desire to learn.

I met Jimmy Vaughan when visiting the above mentioned Nestor Almenrodes who at that time was studying the cinema in a school on the outskirts of Rome. As a student, Nestor was able to get into Cinecitta (cinema city) where at that time they were making Farewell to Arms which starred Rock Hudson and Jennifer Jones. Going over the lot and seeing the sets was interesting and so was meeting such celebrities as Ben Hecht, the writer, and Rock him­self. And afterward we went into the studio snack bar to have a -quick coke.

Nestor introduced me to Jimmy Vaughan and in a laughing sort of way mentioned the fact that the first film job Jimmy ever had was to be opposite Gina Lollabrigida but that Jimmy had turned it down. I looked over at Jimmy who by no means looks the dashing type that you would expect to play opposite the bosomy Italian star and said that his Italian must be excellent to be able to play in Italian films.

Jimmy grinned and said that he couldn't speak a word of Italian.

So then the story came out. Jimmy Vaughan had been a little on the broke side and looking for any kind of a job at all when a friend told him about "dubbing in" jobs. It seems that the Italian movie people, when they wish to send one of their films to English speaking countries have to wipe the sound track clear and "dub in" English speaking voices. They prefer Americans to Englishmen to do the job since the American (and Canadian) market is larger than the British one.

When Jimmy learned the rate for this work was 15,000 lire (about $25) per work period of four hours, he decided that there was no reason why he shouldn't at least try out for the job. He went around to the studios and they gave him a test. His voice was to be the one of the Italian star playing opposite Gina Lollabrigida in one of her earlier films.

The try out took several hours and the director let Jimmy know he'd phone him. Sure enough, that evening he was called and told to turn up at the studio the next day. He was hired.

However, it didn't work out that way. Jimmy went down to the Caffe Degli Artisti on Via Margutta, the center of the bohemian art set, with the idea of doing a little celebrating. He ordered a glass of wine, said hello to a couple of young Americans he knew and let them know he was celebrating the getting of a job that should net him a few hundred dollars in just a couple of week's time. When he told them what the job was, silence fell.

It turned out that the reason his getting the job was so easy was that the little local group of Americans who did this type of work were on what amounted to a strike. They were in the process of forming a union. Jimmy, in short, was being hired as a scab.

Of course he hadn't known the situation so the next morning he phoned the director and told him he couldn't take the position under the circumstances. The director ranted a while, told Jimmy he'd blacklist him in every studio in Italy, but Jimmy just laughed. Obviously this made little difference to him, he hadn't figured on working in the studios anyway except for this break.

However, a few days later the little "union" was successful in its demands and the group was so pleased at Jimmy's stand, par­ticularly in view of the fact that he needed the money so badly, that they invited him to join up.

That's the end of the story. He did and the blacklist came to exactly nothing. He told me that he could make as much as $200 or $250 on a really busy week. Trouble was, every week wasn't busy by any means. However, he was getting by very nicely. Once in awhile he had an opportunity to pick up another odd job or so, particularly when some American company was in town doing a film. For instance, when Audie Murphy was making Graham Green's "The Quiet American." Such jobs might amount to any­thing from acting as a stand-in for one of the stars to playing minor extra bits. In short, Jimmy Vaughan is no actor but he makes a pretty good living being in movies.

Could you do this? If you have a voice that will project well and if you can sell yourself to the powers that be. Voices are tested at Actors Dubbing Association, Via Cernaia, 1, Rome, in case you're interested.

No work permit is needed for this kind of job, of course.

CASE HISTORY No. 2. Ann Wood is an American gal who got herself a desirable deal in Rome. Her story was written up in the October 1954 issue of Mademoiselle magazine by Helen Lund Callaway.

Anna graduated from Smith in 1952 and decided that the usual grind wasn't for her. She went to Paris and got a job assisting a journalist in doing research. This lasted for nine months and at the end of that time she got a letter of introduction from him to a friend in Rome, Frank Gervasi, a well known name in the news­paper field.

Her assignment included such things as going down to Naples to get the Bergman-Rossellini story; trips to museums and churches to find sites for filming a documentary on Easter in Italy. Or doing some research in the large Vatican library.

She's a secretary, in short, does a lot of typing, takes a lot of routine work off her boss' shoulders. She works pretty hard at the job, but it's an interesting, in fact, fascinating one. In pay she gets a hundred dollars a month which sounds like chickenfeed to an American in America but is sufficient to get by on in Rome.

Could you do this?

Given adequate secretarial training you might very well. Ameri­can newspapermen, writers and businessmen often have need abroad of an American secretary. There are situations and times when a foreign one, no matter how well she may speak English, just won't do. The usual thing in getting such a position is to apply through the American consulate, by running ads in the American papers such as the Rome American, or, especially in Rome, to get in touch with the local branch of the American Chamber of Commerce.

If you are particularly interested in working for a journalist or other type of writer, you can get a complete list of those in town from the press section at the American Embassy.

But possibly the best way of all of getting such a job is to get your name on file at At-Your-Service, Via Versilia 2 (just off the Via Veneto, the tourist main drag). This is an employment agency specializing particularly in short-term jobs for the man temporarily in town. However, they also place people in permanent jobs when such are available. You pay for their services, of course.

CASE HISTORY No. 3. A still better example of an American woman working in the stenographic field is Mrs. Ruth Harris (or possibly it's Harrison) whom I met in Rome at a party. Mrs. Harris had had considerable secretarial experience in St. Louis but when a relative had willed her several thousand dollars she de­cided to break with the routine, to take her two children with her, and to see Europe.

However, work is in Ruth Harris' blood, it would seem, because hardly had she arrived in Rome but that she decided the town needed a secretarial bureau for traveling American and British businessmen.

She rented a rather small office on Via S. Nicalo de Tolentino, not far from Via Veneto which is the center for American and British tourists, and ran an ad in the Rome Daily American. She also went to the Chamber of Commerce and got a complete list of every American company that had offices in Rome and notified them of her services. She also registered her services with both the American and British Embassies, with the airline offices, and with everyone else she could think of that might need the services of an American secretary or stenographer.

Ruth Harris had originally figured on doing the work herself, all of it, but it didn't work out that way. Too many jobs came in. When she continually had to turn down clients, they began angrily to ask her why she advertised if she couldn't do the work when they responded. So Mrs. Harris took on, on a share of the profit basis, two or three other girls.

As things stood when we met her, Mrs. Harris herself spent most of her time at the office doing work that didn't involve going afield. Her associates took the positions that involved going to a customer's hotel, or office, or possibly even a trip to some other city on a business errand.

I got the feeling, in talking to her, that had she wished Ruth Harris could have expanded the business considerably, that there was great demand for her services. For whatever reason, and I think it was largely a matter of not wanting to put too much time into work while living in as charming a city as Rome, she didn't expand but was satisfied to go on making a comfortable living on comparatively short hours.

Could you do this?

I doubt if it would be practical in Rome, since Mrs. Harris pretty well has the field covered, but I see no reason why similar secretarial services couldn't be opened in almost any large city in Europe. It is not the type position frowned upon by the authorities since you are doing a service which a local citizen couldn't perform. You are opening an American stenographic and secretarial service. By the way, there is no particular reason why you should be feminine for such work. Often businessmen abroad would prefer a male secretary.

CASE HISTORY No. 4. Positano, just south of Naples, is Italy's most famous art colony, if you don't count Rome herself. But it was in Taormina, in Sicily that I met a young American artist whom we shall call Gary for want of a better name. You'll see in a minute why I don't use his real one.

Gary came to Europe at the age of 19 with a prominent Ameri­can commercial artist who wanted a combination chauffeur, secre­tary, baby-sitter and stooge. On the side he gave Gary lessons in art and in general he was treated as a member of the family.

Gary took his art rather seriously, possibly more so than did his employer, and worked every moment of free time he could find. The job lasted for over a year and toward the end of that time Gary accumulated enough finished paintings to have a one man show.

I'm not sure whether or not the place selected for the show on Corso Umberto had formerly been an art gallery or not. I don't think so. But at any rate Gary fixed it up and they had an opening, the commercial artist beaming fondly at his twenty year old protege.

To everyone's surprise, Gary sold about ten paintings that first day, and, as the show continued and the tourists came in daily, he sold three or four more.

Most of the paintings that were taken weren't particularly highly priced, possibly $25 or so for an oil, or $10 or $15 for a water color. However, as the sales continued through the two week period that they had figured on keeping the show open, Gary began to wonder about it.

The paintings selected were almost always local ones, scenes about Taormina, and always were the more realistic works. Ab­stract pictures just didn't go at all, and it was abstract work in which Gary was really interested.

However, a living is a living, so Gary got to work and began turning out what he describes as "corny crud for the tourists," in rather wholesale quantities. In fact, he finds he can average about two or three oils a day of the type that sell best, or five or six watercolors.

When I saw his "show" he had removed practically all the ab­stract things which he really likes and had filled up the shop with "tourist crud." Most of the pieces were priced at about 15,000 lire ($24) although a few larger ones had more ambitious price tags. Gary had been running his "one man show" for the better part of a year and saw no particular reason for ever shutting it down. A new batch of tourists came in each week, usually spent a short time, and left again. He had an endless flow of potential customers.

His commercial efforts took up about half of his time and Gary spent the balance working at his more serious stuff. I gained the impression that he hated what he was doing, but rationalized that you have to eat, which is true enough. And Gary was eating very well indeed, since he averaged something like $250 a week net.

Could you do this?

You could if you had the necessary basic minimum of ability to turn out artistic "tourist crud." Gary isn't the only artist doing it, I've seen similar deals in hah* the art colonies in America and Europe.

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